Types of Transistors - Transistor Applications and Construction

Transistors from Galco Industrial Electronics

Transistors are a three terminal semiconductor device used to regulate current, or to amplify an input signal into a greater output signal. Transistors are also used to switch electronic signals. The circulation of electrical current through all types of transistors is adjusted by electron addition. This process creates variations in voltage to cause proportionally larger variations in output current, creating amplification.
Although it varies, most Types of Transistors are quite small and versatile. Nearly every electronic device contains at least one or more types of transistors. For many, transistors have been deemed one of the key inventions of the modern electrical era because of the transistors standard and frequent place among electronic systems and modern circuits.
Most types of transistors are packaged individually but can also be included in an integrated circuit. Within these integrated circuits, the number of transistors can vary greatly depending upon the application.

Types of Transistors
Transistor Construction
Transistor Applications

Types of Transistors.

Types of Transistors: The photo above depicts an IGBT Transistor from Powerex.

There are a varieties and different types of transistors available in today's market including Bipolar, Darlington, IGBT, and MOSFET Transistors.

Bipolar Transistor - A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device made of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. A bipolar transistor will have terminals that are labeled: emitter, collector, base. A small current at the base terminal (passing from the base to the emitter) can modify or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.
Darlington Transistor - The Darlington Transistor is actually two bipolar transistors, connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified even further by the second one. This model offers a higher common-emitter current gain than if both types of transistors are separated and can even take up less space because both transistors can share a collector.
IGBT Transistor - An Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device typically used as an electronic switch. IGBT's are types of transistors that are capable of switching electric power in many modern appliances such as electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners and even stereo systems with switching amplifiers.
MOSFET Transistor - A Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOFET) is used in integrated circuits to control the conductivity of a channel. MOSFETs are highly dependent on negative and positive charges. They have many purposes, including limiting a device's power levels, storing data, and being used as a switch for a wide variety of electronic devices.

Transistor Construction.

Many types of transistors are made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
The most basic element of a transistor power module is the silicon chip. Because of the high gain of Darlington configurations, most bipolar types of transistors and transistor modules contain Darlington transistor chips. Some of these chips are planar structures, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The surface of a planar chip can be easily treated, simplifying mass production. Various manufacturers employ state-of-the-art fine line emitter patterns, resulting in excellent gain and safe operating area performance. High blocking voltages are achieved by using a triple diffusion process and guard rings.

Darlington Transistor Diagram

Figure 1.2 illustrates the internal construction of a transistor module. The transistor chip is soldered to a molybdenum base. The molybdenum base alleviates thermal stress on the chip due to the nearly equivalent thermal expansion coefficients of silicon and molybdenum. This assembly is next soldered to a copper collector electrode along with a freewheeling diode chip. The copper electrode is in turn soldered to a ceramic substrate. The ceramic substrate can withstand 2000 to 2500 volts without adding significantly to the device's thermal resistance. The chips are bonded with aluminum wire and then encapsulated with silicone gel to guard the chip surfaces. Finally, the package is back-filled with epoxy resin to increase mechanical and environmental strength.

Transistor Applications.

The proper application of power semiconductors requires an understanding of their maximum ratings and electrical characteristics, information that is presented within the device data sheet. Good design practice employs data sheet limits and not information obtained from small sample lots.
A rating is a maximum or minimum value that sets a limit on device capability. Operation in excess of a rating can result in irreversible degradation or device failure. Maximum ratings represent extreme capabilities of a device. They are not to be used as design conditions.
A characteristic is a measure of device performance under specified operating conditions expressed by minimum, typical, and/or maximum values, or shown graphically.

This diagram represents a simple Bipolar Transistor shematic symbol. More specifically, this symbol represents an NPN Bipolar Transistor.

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/tran.htm

Transistors

This page covers practical matters such as precautions when soldering and identifying leads. The operation and use of transistors is covered by the Transistor Circuits page.

Also see: Heat sinks | Transistor Circuits

Function

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as anamplifier (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol h_FE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.

Types of transistor


Transistor circuit symbols

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.

The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.

In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.

Transistor leads for some common case styles.

Connecting

Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on.

If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the leads.

The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles.

Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above.

Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.

Crocodile clip
Photograph © Rapid Electronics.

Soldering

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.

Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below) which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.

Heat sinkPhotograph © Rapid Electronics

Heat sinks

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.

For further information please see the Heat sinks page.

Testing a transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it:

Testing an NPN transistor

1. Testing with a multimeter

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.

Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

A simple switching circuit
to test an NPN transistor

2. Testing in a simple switching circuit

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be quickly built onbreadboard for example. Take care to include the 10k

resistor in the base connection or you will destroy the transistor as you test it!

If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light when the switch is released.

To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the supply voltage.

Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current and measures the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain h_FE.

Transistor codes

There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:

Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.

Choosing a transistor

Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current I_C and the current gain h_FE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating.

To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below.

NPN transistors
Code	Structure	Case style	I_C max.	V_CE max.	h_FE min.	P_tot max.	Category (typical use)	Possible substitutes
BC107	NPN	TO18	100mA	45V	110	300mW	Audio, low power	BC182 BC547
BC108	NPN	TO18	100mA	20V	110	300mW	General purpose, low power	BC108C BC183 BC548
BC108C	NPN	TO18	100mA	20V	420	600mW	General purpose, low power
BC109	NPN	TO18	200mA	20V	200	300mW	Audio (low noise), low power	BC184 BC549
BC182	NPN	TO92C	100mA	50V	100	350mW	General purpose, low power	BC107 BC182L
BC182L	NPN	TO92A	100mA	50V	100	350mW	General purpose, low power	BC107 BC182
BC547B	NPN	TO92C	100mA	45V	200	500mW	Audio, low power	BC107B
BC548B	NPN	TO92C	100mA	30V	220	500mW	General purpose, low power	BC108B
BC549B	NPN	TO92C	100mA	30V	240	625mW	Audio (low noise), low power	BC109
2N3053	NPN	TO39	700mA	40V	50	500mW	General purpose, low power	BFY51
BFY51	NPN	TO39	1A	30V	40	800mW	General purpose, medium power	BC639
BC639	NPN	TO92A	1A	80V	40	800mW	General purpose, medium power	BFY51
TIP29A	NPN	TO220	1A	60V	40	30W	General purpose, high power
TIP31A	NPN	TO220	3A	60V	10	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP31C TIP41A
TIP31C	NPN	TO220	3A	100V	10	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP31A TIP41A
TIP41A	NPN	TO220	6A	60V	15	65W	General purpose, high power
2N3055	NPN	TO3	15A	60V	20	117W	General purpose, high power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Code	Structure	Case style	I_C max.	V_CE max.	h_FE min.	P_tot max.	Category (typical use)	Possible substitutes
BC177	PNP	TO18	100mA	45V	125	300mW	Audio, low power	BC477
BC178	PNP	TO18	200mA	25V	120	600mW	General purpose, low power	BC478
BC179	PNP	TO18	200mA	20V	180	600mW	Audio (low noise), low power
BC477	PNP	TO18	150mA	80V	125	360mW	Audio, low power	BC177
BC478	PNP	TO18	150mA	40V	125	360mW	General purpose, low power	BC178
TIP32A	PNP	TO220	3A	60V	25	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP32C
TIP32C	PNP	TO220	3A	100V	10	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP32A
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.

Structure	This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type.
Case style	There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common case styles in the Connecting section above. This information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.
I_C max.	Maximum collector current.
V_CE max.	Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction. You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
h_FE	This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current I_C which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts. Why h_FE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.
P_tot max.	Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly I_C × V_CE. For transistors operating as switches the maximum collector current (I_C max.) is more important.
Category	This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate tables for different categories.
Possible substitutes	These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a different case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board.

Darlington pair

This is two transistors connected together so that the amplified current from the first is amplified further by the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing the two transistors. They have three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor.

You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:

For TR1 use BC548B with h_FE1 = 220.
For TR2 use BC639 with h_FE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is h_FE1 × h_FE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.
The pair's maximum collector current I_C(max) is the same as TR2.

Jana

Tuesday, 8 January 2013

Types of Transistors